GATE questions, answered.

Geomagnetic craft will be powered entirely by electric current stored in superconducting persistant current loops known as SMES (Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage) devices. Able to store billions of amps of current due to nearly zero resistance, SMES coils are the solid-state equivalent of a flywheel. Part of what makes our design so elegant is the same coil that stores the power also produces the magnetic field which propels the craft. Yet in order not to defy the laws of thermodynamics, there will be a slow drain on the current within the SMES coil. However, there is speculation among some engineers that as the craft descends through the Earth's magnetic field, some amount of current could be induced back into the system much like regenerative breaking on hybrid/electric cars. But overall, there is still much to learn about a technology that uses an integrated power supply and propulsion system. Elegant? Yes. Predictable? Not.

Indeed, the Earth's magnetic field averages a mere 0.5 gauss at sea level. That's about 10,000 times weaker than the field around a small permanent magnet. Yet what the geomagnetic field lacks in flux density, it more than makes up for in size. In fact, one cubic kilometer near the surface packs a magnetic energy density of about 1.4 million Joules! Theoretically, a craft could be levitated by the geomagnetic field in much the same way a helium baloon rises. A balloon rises because it displaces more weight in air than its own weight. Similarly, if a magnetic field displaced the energy equivalent of the geomagnetic field needed to overcome gravity, then it would float as well.

Even though a geomagnetic craft will use a static (DC) magnetic field, the fact that the field will be moving can induce currents in conductive objects. But generally, if a geomagnetic craft maintains a safe distance, these currents will be insignificant- typically in the microampere range. Normal shielding will protect most sensitive electronics against interference.

Agricultural Engineering, also called biological and agricultural engineering, is the branch of engineering concerned with maximizing the efficient use of natural resources. This manifests itself primarily in relation to food, since Agricultural Engineering seeks to improve the way food is grown, stored and transported. Utilizing principles from mathematics and science, Agricultural Engineering creates practical solutions to agriculture issues. Positions in agricultural engineering typically require at least a bachelor's degree, and they're usually available from companies in departments like sales, research and development, production or management, writes the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. While there are many different kinds of specialties in this field, Agricultural Engineering consists primarily of design, research and analysis.

The short answer is no. Commodity prices rise and fall every day, but farmers have nothing to do with setting food prices unless they are selling directly to consumers at their own farm, farmers market or as part of a group farmers market. On average, more than 80 percent of the cost of food at the grocery store is attributed to marketing and transportation costs, that of which a farmer gets nothing.

Wheat grains have an import duty of 100 per cent; rice has a duty of 80 per cent while the rate for maize is 70 per cent. Grains like rye, barley, oats, buckwheat and canary seed may be imported for free. Soybeans, groundnut, linseed, sunflower seeds, cottonseeds, mustard seeds and the like have an import duty of 35 per cent. Coffee and Tea has a standard duty of 100 per cent. Spices like black pepper, cardamom, chilly and cloves have a duty rate of 70 per cent. All live agricultural animals for breeding purposes like horses, sheep, goats, pigs, poultry, cows and buffalos and their edible parts have a standard customs duty of 30 percent. Fish, molluscs and crustaceans also have a customs duty of 30 percent. The duty applicable on animal products is - milk - 30 percent, butter - 40 percent, cheese - 40 percent and eggs - 30 percent. Live trees, plants, bulbs, roots, roses, shrubs and bushes have a customs duty of 10 percent. Cut flowers and mosses for ornamental purposes have an import duty of 60 and 30 percent respectively. Most vegetables, fruits and spices have a customs duty of 30 percent. Export Duty or Cess for other agricultural products are as follows - Coffee - Rs 2200 per quintal, Black pepper - Rs. 5 per kg, skins and leathers - 60 per cent, raw wool - 25 per cent, raw cotton - Rs.2500 per tonne, jute - Rs 150 per tonne, animal feed - Rs. 125 per tonne and tea - Rs. 5 per kg. More details about the import and export duties, exemptions and clarifications (External website that opens in a new window)

The Ministry of Agriculture (External website that opens in a new window), Government of India, in association with NABARD (External website that opens in a new window) has launched the AgriClinic and AgriBusiness Centre programme to take better farming methods to each and every farmer in India. According to this scheme, agriculture graduates can set up their own AgriClinics or AgriBusiness Centres to offer professional extension services to local farmers. The government also provides business free start up training to graduates in agriculture and allied subjects like horticulture, sericulture, veterinary sciences, forestry, dairy, poultry farming, and fisheries. Those who complete the training can apply for special start-up loans to finance their business. The main function of these Agribusiness Centres is to advice farmers on crop selection, best farm practices, post-harvest value-added options, key agricultural information, weather forecast, price trends, market news, risk mitigation, crop insurance and farm credit as well as critical sanitary and phytosanitary considerations. Tips On Starting An Agri Business: * The first thing about starting an agriculture business is deciding what you want to produce. Remember, the profits you make depend on the market value of the commodity you choose. The climate, soil, irrigation, fodder and other inputs in your area should suit this commodity. * Next, you will need cash to buy seeds, pesticides, land, fertilizer, machinery and other inputs. The government offers a variety of Kisan Credit Cards and financial schemes to help you out with finance. View list of various agricultural loans offered. * Hiring farmers and other staff can make the job of farming a lot easier. * . After, harvesting begins the process of marketing and distribution. Store your produce carefully and deal with marketing cooperatives and other agencies for good remuneration. * If you need any assistance contact the Agribusiness Centre in your area or call the local Kisan Call Centre. This call centre is accessible on a toll free telephone number - 1551 in 21 different languages.

During the winter crop farmers spend their time planning and preparing for the next year. They will service equipment, market stored grain and spend time with their families. One of their most important tasks during the winter is to decide their business strategies for the upcoming year. This includes going over data from the previous season to determine what seed, fertilizer and management practices to use the following year. They also participate in various farm group and commodity group meetings and education seminars. Livestock farmers spend the winter doing what they do every day, caring for their animals.

Modern seed genetics help stave off insect problems in crops. Farmers also use Integrated Pest Management techniques which involve inspecting crops and monitoring crops for damage, and using mechanical trapping devices, natural predators (e.g., insects that eat other insects), insect growth regulators, mating disruption substances (pheromones), and if necessary, chemical pesticides. The use of biological pesticides is an important component of IPM. In technical terms, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is the coordinated use of pest and environmental information with available pest control methods to prevent unacceptable levels of pest damage by the most economical means and with the least possible hazard to people, property, and the environment. (http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/food/ipm.htm) When applying pesticides farmers also have the precision technology to apply directly where needed and are also required to be certified before doing so. Remember, farm products cost the farmer money, so they are used in as small amounts as possible.

The purpose of these practices is to slow or control water runoff, and to trap sediment and nutrients. Buffers—There are many different types of buffers depending on the site. They usually involve incorporating vegetative plantings, which act as a filtration strip to slow water movement, and to trap nutrients and sediment. Conservation tillage—A combination of soil and crop management techniques including managing crop residue and tillage practices in order to aid in soil and organic matter conservation in the field. Crop rotation—A common practice of rotating certain crops planted in a particular field from one season to the next in order to break the cycle of weeds, insects, and diseases. Filter strips—A type of buffer, grass is planted in strips between crops. Grassed waterways—Strips of grass planted where water tends to move across a field, planted to prevent gully erosion. Nutrient management—Managing nutrients entering (feed, fertilizer, legume nitrogen) and leaving (crops, milk, meat) the farm system so that crops needs are closely matched with proper inputs of manure and other nutrients as needed. Riparian buffers—Planted along a stream bank, usually consisting of trees, shrubs, and grasses.

Ohio has more deer than it can manage, said Chris Henney, OFBF’s director of legislative relations. Experts estimate that the deer population is more than 700,000. Ohio Farm Bureau policy calls for reducing that number to 250,000. ODNR says even with a county population at the desired level, deer will move to and concentrate in areas of good habitat. Farm fields and orchards in close proximity to good deer cover are especially vulnerable. Deer damage to crops, timber and nursery plants cost farm families millions. One Farm Bureau member has documented $70,000 in personal losses, likely an extreme, but indicative of the problem. A Cornell University study said that nationally, deer do more than $2 billion in damage every year. Ohio farmers are not compensated when they experience crop loss from wildlife damage.

A new farm bill was passed in 2008. Although most refer to this piece of legislation as 'the Farm Bill' it encompasses much more than just policies and subsidies for farmers. The 2008 Farm Bill will spend $300 billion from 2008 to 2012 ($60 billion/year), 73.5 percent of which is dedicated to the federal nutrition programs such as food stamps, WIC, food banks and school healthy snack and lunch programs. Food banks are facing increased demands due to increasing food costs and job losses. As an example, emergency assistance for food banks is part of the $10.3 billion increase to the nutrition title of the farm bill. The overall mission of the bill is to support the production of a reliable, safe and affordable supply of food and fiber; promote stewardship of agricultural land and water resources; facilitate access to American farm products at home and abroad; encourage continued economic and infrastructure development in rural America; and ensure continued research to maintain an efficient and innovative agricultural and food sector. Approximately 12 percent of the total bill will be spent on farm programs over the next five years. When you look at this amount in terms of the big picture, farm programs receive support at 1/4 of 1 percent of the total federal budget.

expand According to USDA, the answer is unclear at this time. U.S. organic standards and certification do not address food quality, but the method of production. Valid scientific research comparing organic and conventional foods is scant and what has been done focuses on very specific foods and conditions. Some general trends do note that organic foods contain slightly higher levels of trace minerals, vitamin C and antioxidant phytonutrients than conventionally grown crops

Architectural Drafting skills are required for many jobs in the architectural and engineering industries. Continue reading to find out about Architectural Drafting career options. Architectural Drafting may be a career in and of itself, or it may simply be a job requirement for professionals in the architecture or engineering fields. A few careers that involve Architectural Drafting are explored below.

Most schools that offer programs in architectural drafting and design provide on-campus courses, allowing students to utilize the school's CAD software, printers and equipment. A few colleges make coursework available online, though very few offer a fully online program. While some on-campus or on-site intern participation may be required, distance learning trends have seen a rise in online course offerings. You'll find that some schools provide several online courses for architectural drafting programs.

Distance learning programs in architectural drafting vary. Often, courses may be offered online, while actual drafting, lab work and interships must be performed on-campus or at an affiliated company. You may also find programs that make all courses, including practical applications, available online with only an on-site training session required. Very few schools allow an entire architectural drafting program to be completed online. Some online courses you can enroll in may include: * Architecture and design in history * Environmental impact of architecture * Fundamentals of drafting * Residential and commercial building design * Introduction to computer-aided drafting * 3D drafting and elevation graphics * Building materials and construction techniques * Business, communication and finance * Using CADKey, AutoCAD and Autodesk software applications

Step 1: Research Architectural Drafting Career Duties and Education Architectural draftsmen, or drafters, use sketches, notes and dimension from architects and engineers to create detailed drawing used for reference throughout the design and construction process. Most of the drawing is done using computer-aided drafting, or CAD, technology. Drafters need to have knowledge of engineering principals, mathematics, building materials and construction techniques. Some architectural drafters specialize in a type of structure, such as residential or commercial. Others specialize in materials or construction methods, such as steel, wood structure or masonry. Step 2: Complete an Architectural Drafting Training Program According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), www.bls.gov, the best job prospects exist for architectural draftsmen with two years of training, such as a 2-year associate's degree in drafting and design technology. Students receive training in architectural principles, construction techniques and drafting skills. Coursework might include computer-aided drafting, 3-dimensional modeling, construction methods, construction materials and architectural principles. Step 3: Consider Certification While not required, professional organizations, such as the American Design Drafting Association (ADD), www.adda.org, offer certification to architectural drafters that may demonstrate to employers a higher level of professionalism and knowledge. ADDA certification is granted to those who pass their examination. Applicants are tested on concepts such as object representation, knowledge of symbols, basic geometric construction and drafting standards. Step 4: Find a Job The BLS reports that nearly half of all drafting jobs are at architectural, engineering or other related services firms. These organizations generally provide construction or engineering related services on a contract basis. Although job growth is slower than average, the demand for drafting services will continue due in a large part to the increasing complexity of design. Drafters with advanced knowledge and skills will find they are at an advantage as drafters are increasingly asked to perform work traditionally done by professional architects. Step 5: Career Advancement in Architectural Drafting Architectural Draftsmen typically start off in junior roles under the supervision of more experience draftsmen. As they prove their abilities, they may be promoted into higher-level roles providing management and supervision. Architectural draftsmen may consider continuing their education to become licensed professional architects or engineers.

As a doctoral student, you will select an area of concentration that may have a technical, theoretical or historical orientation. You may be attracted to an architecture school with well established research centers in areas that include historic preservation, urban research or sustainable building. Research centers provide opportunities for Ph.D. candidates to develop expertise in their areas by working with established authorities in these and other areas of architectural scholarship specialization, including the following: * Architectural history * Building construction * Organizational and cognitive performance * Design theories, methods and practices * Social and cultural processes in architecture and urbanism * Environmental design and urbanism in developing countries

The majority of courses are electives so that you may pursue your concentration and unique areas of interest in this multidisciplinary field of study. Generally, programs require that you take between 16 and 20 courses to prepare for qualifying exams and a successful dissertation. If you have a Master of Architecture degree, the amount of required courses will be less. In addition to the examples of graduate-level architecture courses that follow, you will take language and research methods courses. * History of American architecture * Urban landscapes * Building systems * Urbanization in developing countries * Research methods * Place and culture * History of architectural theory * Historic site documentation

If you want to become an architect, most states require that you be licensed. To get a license, you need to complete an undergraduate degree that is accredited by the National Architectural Accrediting Board (NAAB). According to their website (www.naab.org), there are other methods of acquiring a license, but most states do require a degree from an accredited program. NAAB states that they accredit programs, not colleges. NAAB lists the Bachelor of Architecture or the Master of Architecture as the accredited degrees for this profession. You can, however, get a Bachelor of Science in Architecture as a 'pre-professional' degree and then complete the Master of Architecture curriculum at an accredited school. The NAAB website lists over 100 accredited programs.

Most Bachelor of Architecture programs require five years of study. A Bachelor of Art or Science in Architecture might require only four years of study. According to the American Institute of Architects, most students spend a minimum of five years in an undergraduate program and one to five years in a graduate program. The extended time for the Master of Architecture degree depends on the undergraduate preparation. It is also important to know that to be licensed as an architect, you also need to complete an internship and work in the field for usually at least three years. After that, you have to pass a comprehensive exam. It can differ from state to state, so you would need to check with the state where you want to practice to see what the rules are. You can find information about each state at the NAAB website.

Architectural Engineering is the discipline concerned with the planning, design, construction, and operation of engineered systems for commercial, industrial, residential, and institutional buildings.

Architecture is the art of organizing physical spaces to accommodate human actions. Architecture includes the breadth of design of the built environment that balances the aesthetic and functional requirements of usable spaces and environments. Architectural Engineering is the science of designing the components of a building, facility, or structure to facilitate the functions of a building. The engineering systems required of built structures include electric power; communications and control; lighting; heating, ventilation and air conditioning; and structural systems.

The program prepares students in engineering systems design for buildings. The engineering focus of building systems design include (1) structural systems design, (2) electrical power and lighting systems design, and (3) mechanical systems design. Students will acquire an in-depth proficiency in one of the focus areas and breadth knowledge in the remaining two focus areas. A fourth focus area is construction management.

Employment opportunities are available with industry, governmental agencies, or with architectural engineering firms providing services in the areas of structural systems design, electrical lighting and power systems design, or mechanical systems design. Opportunities are also available with construction companies as project managers and estimator.

A large part of the preparation for career development is provided in the course work required by the program. Students are also required to complete a minimum 10 week co-op or internship as a requirement for graduation. In addition, all students are required to complete a capstone design project during their senior year to strengthen the student’s ability to conduct independent design and analysis of “real world” problems. Students are provided practical design problems obtained from licensed architectural engineers who also monitor and evaluate the design content.

The civil engineering technologist is involved in the design and construction of buildings, bridges, highways, streets, parks, subdivisions, dams, drainage and irrigation systems, water supply and sewer systems, and plants. Aspects of civil engineering and urbanization in Canada are studied throughout this program. A diverse and stimulating program, Civil Engineering Technology incorporates field trips to reinforce theoretical background, and to develop appropriate methods of approach and solution.

There are two types of bachelor's degrees in engineering: professional and non-professional degrees. Professional degrees typically take one year longer and qualify you to enter the workforce as an engineer after completing your bachelor's program. You'll learn the theoretical principles that influence how cities are built. This includes advanced study of the process of designing and building roads, buildings, dams, bridges and airports. You'll also learn about wastewater and sewage systems. Most programs will also teach you how to estimate construction costs, determine how much and what types of materials will be used for each project, how to negotiate governmental regulations and how to protect against environmental disasters. Many programs allow you to specialize in areas like construction, water management, geotechnical engineering or transportation. You may also learn about the cultural, historical and sociological influences that affect the design and construction of cities. A general knowledge of math, physics, contracts, construction and environmental science will likely support more specialized training.

You'll need at least a high school diploma to be considered for admission. The strongest applicants will have aptitudes in computer science, physics or business. Most admissions committees ask for GRE scores, letters of recommendation and a personal statement.

Professional degrees can usually be completed in five years, while non-professional degrees can typically be completed in four. Coursework is largely didactic and takes place mostly in the classroom. Here are courses likely to appear in the curriculum: * Calculus * Computer-aided drafting * Surveying * Technical physics * Hydraulics * Structural analysis * Highway elements * Steel design

The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) expects the employment rate for civil engineers to increase 24% between 2008 and 2018 (www.bls.gov), faster than average. Growth in this profession will be driven mostly by population growth and the need to improve national infrastructure. The median annual salary for civil engineers was $74,600 as of May, 2008.

A degree in Civil Engineering can lead to a variety of career options. Depending on the focus of the degree, Civil Engineering degree graduates may get entry-level jobs as city engineers, transportation engineers or generic Civil Engineers at consulting firms, governmental agencies and manufacturing firms.

Step 1: Research Civil Engineer Career Duties and Education The Civil Engineer Center for Integrating Information, www.thecivilengineer.org, states that Civil Engineers design and execute structural works that serve the public. Civil Engineers are responsible for designing and overseeing the construction of roads, buildings, airports, tunnels, bridges and sewage systems. They also take into consideration how much it will cost to complete projects and how long infrastructure will last. Civil Engineers manage the projects and the people working on them to ensure they get done on time. Construction sites are the typical work environments for Civil Engineers. They usually work 40 hours a week with some business travel to different cities. Civil Engineers must have a Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering and a license. Step 2: Prepare for a Civil Engineering Education while in High School Students interested in a Civil Engineering career should take advanced placement courses in physics, biology, chemistry, math, English and computer science. Students need excellent grades in order to get accepted into a college's Engineering degree program. Step 3: Find an ABET-Accredited Civil Engineering Degree Program Aspiring Civil Engineers can find colleges with Engineering degree programs accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) on www.abet.org. The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), www.bls.gov, reports that ABET ensures the quality of college Engineering programs to meet industry standards. Step 4: Earn a Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering Undergraduate students must take courses in basic engineering, math, physics, social sciences, life sciences and civil engineering. A Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering program requires classroom, laboratory and independent study. Step 5: Get a License Civil Engineers who offer their services to the community or the public must be a licensed Professional Engineer (PE). In order to get a license, Civil Engineers must have a Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering from an accredited ABET program. They must also pass the Fundamentals of Engineering and Principles and Practice of Engineering exams. Four years of professional Civil Engineering experience are required for licensure.

You routinely use things that civil engineers design, such as roads, airports, tunnels, bridges and subway systems, so why not help create them? Although civil engineering is a specialized discipline, you don't have to pay for college courses to learn it. Study the subject at your convenience with the following free online civil engineering courses.

1. Introduction to Civil Engineering Design at Massachusetts Institute of Technology The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) offers Introduction to Civil Engineering Design, an OpenCourseWare (OCW) course that originated as a for-credit course taught on the school's campus. This course doesn't provide credit or interaction with instructors and other students, but it does offer free access to course materials, lectures and assignments that you have the option to complete.

If you don't have a degree, you can enroll in a Bachelor of Science program as a chemical engineering major. You can also earn a Master of Science or Doctor of Philosophy in Chemical Engineering.

You can earn your Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering online. While you can complete an online program in four years, some programs allow you to earn a degree in six years on a flexible schedule. You can also earn a Master of Science degree online in a non-thesis program, but you'll have to attend a traditional on-campus program to earn your doctorate.

There are no prerequisites for a bachelor's degree program other than a high school diploma or GED. However, you'll have to earn your bachelor's degree before enrolling in a Master of Science or doctorate program. While many chemical engineering programs at the master's degree level only admit students with an engineering or science background, you can enroll in a bridge program if you were an undergraduate major in another field. A bachelor's degree is also required to enroll in a doctorate program. Some Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering programs require management courses, which you won't have to complete if you earned a Master of Business Administration.

As a chemical engineering major in an undergraduate program, you'll learn about inorganic chemistry, physics and engineering principles. This study will prepare you for advanced courses that teach you about thermodynamics, creating chemical reactions, processing and mass transfer. You can also specialize your study in environmental engineering, materials science and biochemical engineering. If you enroll in a master's degree program, you'll learn about molecular, nanoscale and polymer engineering. Chemical engineering programs at the graduate-level provide advanced instruction on how to analyze compounds, create alloys and develop chemical processes. If you continue your study in a Ph.D. program, you'll apply the knowledge acquired in a master's degree program to research an existing or new issue within the field of chemical engineering. This doctoral work can deal with natural resources handling, pharmaceutical development, plastics, electronics or pollution control, among others. Doctoral work will also cover the basics of instructing college students or presenting research to other chemical engineers.

If you earn a bachelor's degree or a Master of Science in Chemical Engineering, you can work as a chemical engineer. Many positions in the field only require a 4-year degree, but supervisory and research positions may require a master's degree. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), demand in the field should decrease by two percent between 2008 and 2018, but demand for scientific consulting, energy and biotechnology positions will grow (www.bls.gov). The median salary for chemical engineers was $88,280 in 2009. If you earn a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering, you can work as a college instructor. The BLS reports that chemistry teachers in colleges and universities had median salaries of $68,760 in 2009. Demand for college instructors should also rise by 15% in the 2008-2018 decade.